Explore cultural differences and the way of operation of ainstream film genres through remakes and homages to Chinese films

Author： Yuxuan Nie

University of Leeds

Abstract:

This thesis analyzes the cultural differences between China and Western countries in the cross-cultural remakes of films, as well as the resulting differences in narrative modes and aesthetic styles of films, from the four aspects of national system, cultural background, way of thinking and historical background. At the same time, it analyzes the mode and marketing strategy of Chinese and Hollywood film remaking from the operation mode of genre film.

Keywords:

cross-cultural remake movies，China，Western countries，the cultural difference

Introduction:

The past two decades have witnessed the resurgence of Chinese cinemas on the global stage. In an era of relative cultural and political ‘openness’ after the Cultural Revolution, and during and after Deng Xiaoping’s leadership in the People’s Republic of China, a number of the Fifth and Sixth Generation graduates from the Beijing Film Academy have become celebrity fixtures in the inter- national film-festival circuit, with more iconic directors such as Chen Kaige, Zhang Yimou and Jia Zhangke entering the global cinematic mainstream. These filmmakers have joined their Hong Kong, Taiwanese and Asian American counterparts – the likes of Wong Karwai, John Woo, Tsui Hark, Johnnie To, Stanley Kwan, Peter Chan, Ang Lee, Hou Hsiao-hsien, Tsai Mingliang, Chen Kuofu and Wayne Wang – in generating a substantive body of work that constitutes a discursive Chinese cinematic presence in the global film histories of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. This Chinese cinematic presence seeps across national boundaries, as it rides transnational capitalist media flows, to permeate regional, diasporic and global networks（Chan，2017.p.88）.

As a result, driven by economic interests, Hollywood began to filter out high-quality Chinese-type movies and remake them. It is precisely because remake movies have both established audiences market and potential audiences market which are easy to form. China's cinema market will be an important part of Hollywood's global strategy, and the audience market means box office. Therefore, Hollywood's "Remake Boom" for Chinese movies continues to heat up (Yu, 2011). Many excellent Chinese movies have been brought to the big screen in western countries through remake.

At the same time, this kind of cross-cultural remake movies has gradually become active in the Chinese movie market. Intertextual analysis, which involves the reading of a remake in light of “the co-existence of two or more texts” (Horton & McDougal, 1998, p. 3), is a common methodological approach to remake studies. In China, there are also many excellent remakes from foreign movies. They actively absorb and modify foreign high-quality movie resources with an open attitude and are committed to the Sinicization of foreign classic movies. It has positive significance in promoting cultural exchanges, adding fresh elements of movies, and stimulating local innovation in movie creation. It is also a beneficial attempt for Chinese movies to follow the international path.

To sum up, whether respecting or being reproduced, transnational and cross-cultural film reproducing first solves the problem of differences in history and culture between different countries. Edward T. Hall, the founder of cross-cultural communication, believes that in order to achieve cross-cultural barrier-free docking, communication and fusion, it is necessary to translate the cultural context properly and accurately place the localization logic in the multinational "cultural blocks", that is, the construction of the behavior chain. Action chain is a term borrowed from ethology（1975，p.97）. He points out that action chains in cross-cultural communication actually represent a kind of situational framing relationship. Effective cross-cultural goals can only be achieved after each link in the chain has been forged. This means that if a filmmaker wants to turn a national movie into a story that convinces local audiences, he must solve the problem of localization of foreign films. That is to say, the rewriting and cultural fusion of movie text in the cross-cultural communication level need to consider whether audiences in different cultural contexts can accept and enjoy a certain form of text interpretation (Cuelenaere,2019,p.11).

Among these remakes, there are many successful films, such as Martin Scorsese's film The Departed (2006), which was a remake of the Hong Kong film Infernal Affairs (2002). In contrast to the opening of Infernal Affairs (2002), which is full of traditional Chinese culture, the American version of The Departed (2006) begins the film with the help of Frank Costello's voiceover to promote American values, the so-called "American spirit" : "You have to earn everything by yourself. Therefore, the two films reveal the cultural differences between the East and the West at the beginning of the film, which also determines the differences in cultural positioning and narrative purposes between the Hong Kong version and the American version. With these changes, it's clear that director Martin Scorsese is trying to address the cultural differences between China and the United States in the adaptation of the film.

Another successful example of cross-cultural film remake is the Chinese film 12 Citizens (2015), a remake of the American film 12 Angry Men (1957). After the Hollywood released 12 Angry Men in 1957, there appeared a series of imitations of the film, such as the Japanese film The Gentle Twelve (1991), the Russian film 12 Angry Men (2007) and the Chinese film 12 Citizens (2015). In the Chinese film 12 Citizens (2015), because the jury system does not actually exist, the film had to set up a case discussion about the graduation of children, that is, to simulate a jury in a western court. The biggest change in the film is to emphasize the obligations and rights of the simulated jury, and how to make people rationally participate in the discussion, so as to complete a baptism of judicial discussion. The 12 virtual jurors in the film not only reflect on their own prejudices through the case, but also reflect on their modern citizenship through their brief experience of identity. Thus, the film cleverly transforms the differences between the Chinese and American legal system.

If both of the above movies are successful examples of remaking, then the Chinese film Kill Mobile (2018), which was made from the Italian film Perfect Strangers (2016), has not received a good reputation in China due to the large deviation in understanding of the original film and the failure to solve the differences between Western cultures in Chinese society. The same problem arises in Zhang Yimou's film A Woman, a Gun and a Noodle Shop (2009), which was filmed in the Coen Brothers' first film Blood Simple (1984), but the opening of A Woman, a Gun and a Noodle Shop (2009) has shown a difference from Blood Simple (1984) : No Film noir-style voiceover; dense and obtrusive filming and editing; the tone is a mixture of farce and opera exaggeration. Due to the lack of localization and the absurdity of the plot, it was difficult for local Chinese audiences to accept the film.

To sum up, only when the strangeness and heterogeneity caused by cultural differences and social reality differences are solved can good foreign scripts and stories take root in local culture and make audiences feel authentic, sincere and friendly. So, in how to solve the cultural differences in cross-cultural remake of the film, should be the artists should attach importance to the problem, this paper from the state system, the social culture, thinking mode and the historical background of the four angles to explore China and the west in the film remake of differences and the differences of mainstream film type operation pattern.

Main body

This paper will compare Chinese and western cultural differences and the operation mode of mainstream films to make cross-cultural remakes of Chinese films. First of all, we need to discuss the cultural differences between China and the west in their respective countries, which will be studied from four parts.

1. Differences in national systems between China and Western countries:

(Take the American film 12 Angry Men and the Chinese remake of 12 Citizens as examples)

12 Angry Men (1957) is a genre subordinate to courtroom movies, a Hollywood subgenre. Matthias Kuzina, a sociology researcher, in his article "The Social Issue Courtroom Drama as an Expression of American Popular Culture", pides court films in a broad sense into "problem films presented in the form of legal dramas" and "court films on social issues"（2002,p.55-59）. Due to the particularity of court piece, serious law with the combination of mass culture, it is good at placing a social problem in the narrative structure of the film and the story background, the great suspense, and through the trial to make the social problems in the end an imaginative solution, so that the public on the specific issues of emotional anxiety release.

12 Citizens (2015) is based on 12 Angry Men (1957), 12 Citizens (2015) invites audience’s reflections upon inpidual rights and communal obligations by transplanting the tale of U.S. jurisprudence into Chinese soil(Yang,2018,p.34). These two films share the same main plot and clue -- 12 jurors in a juvenile murder case after a lengthy debate, the initial vote of 11 guilty, 1 not guilty, eventually changed to 12 not guilty. The two films have the same basic clues and logical analysis of the case, but the biggest change in 12 Citizens (2015) from 12 Angry Men (1957) lies in the differences between China and the United States in the national system.

In the case of 12 Angry Men (1957), the central element is the jury system, which is the classic legal system of Western civilization. In the western legal system dominated by Britain and America, the jury is the key to the decision, and the judge is not the final arbiter. As such, it is an important part of the American quest for democratic values. The existence of the jury system makes the film need to deal with the inpidual images and group images of 12 jurors. The film intuitively sets the identities of the characters to the maximum extent of symbolization, which can represent the social citizens of different classes, professions and fields more typically and extensively. Accordingly, each person's way of speech and emotional expression is also more stereotyped. In addition, considering that the film is often based on closed space for debate, the visual style and performance of the whole story are very staged, which also superimposes the sense of defense ceremony given by the sacred judicial spirit into the space, and endows the 12 jurors with an abstract metaphor representing the power of the secular social system (Chen& Li,2017). Therefore,

12 Angry Men (1957) in a sense has also become a symbol of American democracy, freedom and the spirit of the rule of law.

On the other hand, the Chinese film 12 Citizens (2015) has been translated and reconstructed accordingly in combination with its own social reality and national ideology. Since the U.S. jury system does not exist in China, it is practically impossible to present a real trial with a jury on screen. The solution of the film is to ask students to organize a mock court and parents to form a mock jury to discuss on the grounds of making up the final exam of European and American law for students of the School of Political Science and Law. The relationship changed: the 12 jurors in 12 Angry Men (1957) became the parents of the 12 students in 12 Citizens (2015), who participated in a moot court discussion. The speech behavior and character thinking of the parents of the 12 students all have the characteristics of the current Chinese society, which is very different from the middle and high class people such as architects, doctors, actors and accountants in the American version of 12 Angry Men (1957).

Unlike the architect whose 8th juror in the American version of 12 Angry Men （1957）is a representative of the wealthy and rational spirit of the United States, the 8th juror in the Chinese film 12 Citizens（2015） is the inspector of the People's Procuratorate, and he seems to be paying close attention, observing, designing and controlling the whole discussion process and development direction. This setting has exaggerated significance but it deftly mollified the censors (Yang,2018,p.38). It even won 300,000 dollars in government funding, which is about half of its budget (Makinen 2015). Such a change not only conforms to the current Chinese legal system reality, but also to the national ideological nature of the current Chinese legal system. It is also objective and easy to be recognized by all parties. Of course, it also places great hope on the legal system reform.

To sum up, because the legal systems of China and the United States are quite different, Chinese directors who want to remake Hollywood courtroom movies need to reconstruct the social background of the original movies and substitute Western liberalism into Chinese centralized legal system through a form of virtual construction. But at the same time, both movies can be regarded as expressions of the mass culture's "modernity" ideologies, whether in China or in the United States. Since the Enlightenment Age, judicature has been the rational spiritual support of modern society (Zhou,2016). How to understand and construct our own spirit of rule of law and legal awareness is not only related to the cultural continuity of human history and civilization, but also to the different annotations of "modernity" in the globalization era.

2. Differences in social culture between China and Western countries:

(Take the American film 12 Angry Men and the Chinese remake of 12 Citizens as examples)

The case of the American film 12 Angry Men (1957) tells the story of a black slum boy accused of murdering his father, and the 12 white jurors are all from the middle class of different walks of life. This social background exposes the racial contradictions of the society at that time.

But at the same time, around the whole jury system and 12 jurors, American movies represented by 12 Angry Men (1957) build the whole plot social cultural basis through the famous plea of innocence, which emphasizes that "refutation of guilt does not require proof of innocence, only reasonable doubt"(Zhou,2016). Thus, starting with the special juror number eight, the truth of the whole story is revealed to the audience bit by bit as he raises questions about the irrationality of the case. Instead of pursuing "justice in the judicial process", the film focuses on the citizens' search for the truth, their conscious understanding of fairness and justice, as well as the spirit of introspection for their own prejudices.

12 Angry Men (1957) is, therefore, the first and most powerful attempt to popularize the jury system in film history. It aims to explain how this "draconian" system saved the life of an innocent suspect who might have found himself in a similar situation (Yang,2018,p.36). To a certain extent, the film conveys the American social and cultural spirit.

The content change of 12 Citizens (2015) is reflected in the representative focus of current Chinese social groups. As the film 12 Citizens（2015） slogan is "12 Chinese, 1.2 billion voice", when a reporter asked, and as director Xu said, "when the 12 men sat at a table, almost equal to the assembled a microcosm of a nation's people's survival state", Xu has set his sights on community life identity, career. The identity or occupation of the twelve citizens in the film are: law school assistant, math professor, taxi driver, real estate dealer, ex-prison personnel, emergency department doctor, grocery store owner, prosecutor, empty nesters, old Beijing residents who collect rent, Henan security guard, insurance salesman. Obviously, the class distribution of the twelve citizens is quite broad, comprehensive and representative, which undoubtedly reflects the intention of the director to present the current social problems in China. These professional Settings and slightly present conflicts in the movie (the following class and real estate developers, to collect the rent from Beijing and other places to rent, the lower the manual worker and the prosecutor as a representative of the intelligentsia in system, etc.), will let us think of regional discrimination, job discrimination, resentment of the gap between rich and poor, high housing prices, doctor and patient, aging, "rich second generation" and so on the present Chinese living and remarkable social and cultural problems.

3. Differences in thinking patterns between China and Western countries:

(Take the Chinese film Infernal Affairs and the American remake The Departed as examples)

The Hong Kong film Infernal Affairs (2002) cites Buddhist scriptures in its opening. The whole film expresses a painful life situation -- identity dislocation, the two male protagonists can only wander between the undercover identity and the real identity. The expression of this theme itself has a strong traditional Chinese philosophical color with a fatalistic view. The American remake of The Departed (2006) also begins the film with the help of a voice-over by Frank Costello, the mobster, with the American value that you have to earn everything for yourself. Therefore, the two films at the beginning of the film shows the difference between the eastern and western thinking modes, which also determines the cultural positioning and narrative purposes of the Hong Kong version and the American version (Yang,2011).

In Infernal Affairs（2002）, director Liu Wei-keung uses the Buddhist karma wheel to describe the story, making it impossible for the audience to know the time and place of the story from the film. The purpose of this mode of thinking is to make the audience pay more attention to the story itself and the values and philosophical thinking it reflects. The Hollywood remake of The Departed（2006） completely changed the meaning of the background of the Hong Kong version of "The Departed", making the time background clear and localized. The American version pushes the film from the 1990s to Boston in the 1970s. Jack Nicholson's gangster character is based on James Whitey Bulger, a real gangster who is still at large in the United States. The re-setting of the time background in the American version means that the film focuses on the social politics of the real America(Zhao,2009,p.28). We can see that from the Hong Kong version to the American version, the thinking mode of the film changed from the philosophical thinking on human nature to the critical reflection on the social reality. This is partly due to the different thinking modes of audiences. Influenced by traditional Chinese culture, Hong Kong local audiences are more inclined to the thinking mode of traditional philosophy, while European and American audiences are more inclined to the more direct movie-watching experience.

4. Differences between China and Western Countries in Historical Background:

(Take the American film Blood Simple and the Chinese remake A Woman，a Gun and a Noodle Shop as examples.)

In Hollywood film noir of the 1940s, the iconic femme fatale is ‘made to appear beautiful but also treacherous, criminally depraved and castrating in . . . [her] desires’ (Boozer 1999/2000: 21). This female figuration did not remain static; for by the time one gets to the neo-noir films of the 1960s and 1970s, she has been transformed into ‘usually the passive or incidental victim rather than active manipulator of her sexual-economic circumstance’ (Chan,2017.p.87). Frances McDormand’s Abby in Blood Simple (1984) continues to embody the femme fatale’s sexual mystery and threat, but the film hints at the fact that she has an affair with Ray (John Getz) only because she is unhappy with her marriage to a potentially abusive Marty (Dan Hedaya). In accordance with the noir narrative convention, Abby’s trustworthiness is successfully questioned, which becomes a pivotal plot point, when Marty insidiously plants in Ray’s head suspicions about Abby’s motivations: ‘what’s really gonna be funny is when she gives you that innocent look and says, “I don’t know what you’re talking about, Ray. I ain’t done anything funny.”’

By shifting away from Hollywood’s film noir and neo-noir traditions, Zhang’s remake diminishes the sexual mystery of the wife and underscores much more explicitly, both in terms of character development and narrative revisions, her suffering under the perverse patriarchal dominance of her husband, Wang. In providing the back-story of how he ‘bought’ her for ‘three guan and eight hundred wen’ and how her ‘womb is like a piece of junk’ because ‘it won’t lay any eggs’, Wang epitomises Chinese patriarchy’s egregious treatment of women as social commodities and reproductive machines. To help further corroborate audience disgust with Wang, Zhang magnifies the shop owner’s abuse of his wife by detailing, in the sexual role-play to which he subjects her, intimations of paedophilic fetishism. He burns her with his pipe when she challenges him. While

Blood Simple (1984) only subtly insinuates Marty’s mistreatment of Abby in the relationship prior to her affair, Zhang foregrounds and visually concretises in the narrative this aspect of the relationship. This specific detail is necessary to justify the wife’s fantasy of wanting to kill her husband and offers the emotional rationale for her overt expressions of anger at him. With great determination, she warns him that ‘this will be the last time you abuse me like this’. She expresses a profound sense of purpose and self-understanding when she tells her lover Li that she intends to porce her husband, unlike Abby’s rather cautious revelation to Ray at the beginning of Blood Simple (1984) where she betrays her confusion about what to do with her failing marriage. The wife even confronts her feminised lover for being ‘such a wimp’, by expressing her emotional needs: ‘As a woman, all I wanted was a shoulder to lean on, but there was none. Then I met you. I thought I found one. But I was wrong about you. You don’t deserve my love.’ The endings of the two films are also significantly different in tone（Matthew & Zhou.2014). Abby rather calmly states ‘I’m not afraid of you, Marty’ after she shoots the hired assassin she mistakes for her husband, while the wife literally screams at the camera through the gunshot hole (in an iris, Dutch tilt shot): ‘You tell Wang he can’t bully me anymore. I’m not afraid!’ Zhang, therefore, has chosen to remake the woman into the powerful modern feminist figure that she truly deserves to be. This adaptation is based on the historical background of China's unique patriarchal system, and at the same time, it is in line with the local Chinese audience's support for the feminist movement in the 21st century (Chan,2017.p.87).

Guns are ubiquitous in American society and political culture, which makes it as the first-choice weapon in Blood Simple (1984), and its existence in the narrative seems ordinary. However, if Zhang Yimou wants to keep his own existence in his films (the story background is deeply rooted in China's "primitive" past) and in the title of the film, he needs to interpret this violent technology as a symbol of the invasion of Western modernity into Chinese culture (Leigh,2010). Because there is no gun in China's historical background, it will be very abrupt to forcibly retain the elements of guns. Therefore, Zhang Yimou skillfully takes guns as the symbol of China's fight against western "corruption".

To sum up, Chinese and western in the national system, thinking pattern, social cultural and historical background of these aspects are existing huge cultural differences, and these cultural differences caused the cross-cultural remake of the film in the text of narrative and aesthetic style differences. Therefore, whether it is a Chinese film remake in western countries, or the European and American film director remake by China, these cross-cultural remake of the films all need according to the localization of renovation, to cater to the domestic audience viewing habits.

On the other hand, in these cross-cultural remakes, there is also a debate about how the genre works.

First to Hollywood remake of the movie The Departed（2006）, for example, in the face of their own creativity and decay, Hollywood made such an important business strategy: to mature industry model make up the lack of initiative, creative story template, transform it to conform to the contemporary American audiences appreciate the movie for a change. According to this strategy, in recent years, a number of Asian films that is popular have been remade by Hollywood studios and have achieved commercial success. Hollywood has its own strategy in remapping Oriental films, which will never be staged in the original version, but through careful adaptation. After a makeover, only the core of an Oriental story is always retained. Meanwhile, the process of changing Asian films into Hollywood films also reflects the personal style of directors and the cultural attributes of American films.

In the hands of Martin Scorsese, a film sociologist, "Infernal Affairs" becomes "The Departed," with the same core story but an entirely different style and meaning. For Hollywood, the aim of remaking Oriental films is not to reproduce cultural value or artistic creation, but to meet the needs of the American film industry. In the era of globalization, a strong film industry not only means to occupy the global film market and absorb excellent film talent, but also to copy the popular film stories of other nations and countries. What Hollywood chooses to copy is generally a genre movie. Copying is a commercial success, but for Western directors, grasping the essence of the original is a challenge, not because they are weak, but because of the difference between the two cultures. No amount of technology, skill, or investment will matter. The cultural quality of the copy is often much inferior to that of the original film, and what the Hollywood copy brings is the loss of the Oriental "spirit" （Cuelenaere, 2020).

However，what is lost is usually made up in other forms. Behind Hollywood's "copying" of the East is a reflection of declining creativity. As a film that actively draws upon the work of others through its citation, allusion to and perhaps even plagiarism of texts that came before it, the remake is often subject to criticism for representing a lack of originality (Horton & McDougal, 1998).But Hollywood is still able to make up for its lack of creativity with a mature industry model that draws in creative directors and actors from the Orient and dispenses them globally very strategically. The films remade by Hollywood are usually the original box office or cultural success of the works, which also to some extent to ensure that the remakes of the film attendance. In 2002, "Infernal Affairs" topped the Hong Kong box office with a total box office of 55.04 million Hong Kong dollars. In October 2006, the remake "The Departed" won the title with a box office of 27 million dollars in its first week in North America. These factors can guarantee the box office, the American version is basically obtained, and then the Chinese story is infused with American values (Woodland,2016,p.182), the original social and cultural significance almost disappeared. Even a Hollywood mastermind like Martin Scorsese failed to capture the spirit and spirit of the original film.

Cross-cultural remake at the same time, in China, China's film market share is getting higher and higher, more and more producers in order to minimise risk, directly buy those who already have a high reputation and viewing audience of excellent film copyright in other countries, to flip, this kind of film is usually type, comedy, thriller, for example, producers through to pull box office star, but often neglect the quality of the remake of the film itself. However, in the market of cross-cultural remakes in China, there are still many remakes with high reputation (Zhu,2017,p.51). They have become a sleeper hit in the box office through small cost production, excellent script adaptation and successful transplantation of localization.

In a word, remaking foreign films enriches the genre of Chinese films and promotes the persified development of Chinese films. Since the 21st century, Chinese film market has developed rapidly, but the problem of single genre is also prominent. In the past decade, the ancient martial arts films that dominated the market to the youth films that became popular in recent years, the phenomenon of following the trend is prominent in the film market. Remakes of foreign films have opened up the creative ideas of Chinese films. For example, 12 Citizens （2015）is a courtroom film, and A Woman，a Gun and a Noodle Shop (2009) is a black comedy, both of which are relatively lacking in the Chinese film market.

Conclusion

This thesis aimed to explore remake film in Chinese context and the context of western countries, through to the system of western countries, ways of thinking, cultural background and historical background, analyzes the Chinese and western cultural differences and reflected in cross-cultural remake the movie about the same text, narrative methods and aesthetic style of two kinds of culture differences.

On the other hand, by comparing the operation mode of Hollywood's remake of Asian films with that of China's remake of Western films, this paper analyzes the current situation of remake of Chinese market.

Therefore, from the perspective of cross-cultural comparison of cultural details reflected in many films, it is not difficult to see that film remade seems simple, but in fact, many details need to be adjusted. Only when the strangeness and heterogeneity caused by cultural and social differences are solved can good foreign scripts and stories take root in the Chinese culture and grow out of the current social reality, making audiences feel authentic, sincere and friendly. Therefore, how to deal with the transformation of intercultural communication in the film text and solve the cultural differences in the remake should be the problem that the creators should pay attention to.

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